Article Review: Multiple Sclerosis

Authors

  • May Y. Al-ma'mouri Middle Technical University, Institiute of Medical Techology Al-mansoor, IRAQ.

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.55544/jrasb.3.1.29

Keywords:

Multiple sclerosis, Immunology, Disease modifying therapies

Abstract

Neurology still puzzles about multiple sclerosis (MS). This comprehensive overview explores MS's history, epidemiology, etiology, clinical manifestations, diagnostic tools, and treatment options. From historical awareness to cutting-edge research, we traverse MS's complex world with a focus on the past and future. Genetics, environment, and migration interact to create geographic riddles in MS prevalence. MS's sensory and cognitive symptoms show its significant influence. Advanced imaging technology and diagnostic criteria enable accurate and quick identification. While transformational, disease-modifying treatments require a tailored approach. Advances have left crucial gaps, prompting researchers, physicians, and policymakers to continue. This in-depth investigation of MS combines historical and future perspectives to emphasize the urgency and possibility of solving this complicated neurological puzzle.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

References

Khan Z, Gupta GD, Mehan S. Cellular and molecular evidence of multiple sclerosis diagnosis and treatment challenges. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2023 Jun 26;12(13):4274.

Papaloukas P. The lived experience of LGBTQ persons living with multiple sclerosis (MS): A critical analysis.

El-Mansoury B, Laadraoui J, El Khiat A, El Hiba O, Jayakumar AR, Ferssiwi A, Bitar A. Ataxia in Multiple Sclerosis: From Current Understanding to Therapy.

Lakin L, Davis BE, Binns CC, Currie KM, Rensel MR. Comprehensive approach to management of multiple sclerosis: addressing invisible symptoms—a narrative review. Neurology and therapy. 2021 Jun;10:75-98.

Macin G, Tasci B, Tasci I, Faust O, Barua PD, Dogan S, Tuncer T, Tan RS, Acharya UR. An accurate multiple sclerosis detection model based on exemplar multiple parameters local phase quantization: ExMPLPQ. Applied Sciences. 2022 May 12;12(10):4920.

Makhani N, Tremlett H. The multiple sclerosis prodrome. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2021 Aug;17(8):515-21.

Learmonth YC, Motl RW. Exercise training for multiple sclerosis: a narrative review of history, benefits, safety, guidelines, and promotion. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2021 Dec 16;18(24):13245.

Grzegorski T, Losy J. Multiple sclerosis–the remarkable story of a baffling disease. Reviews in the Neurosciences. 2019 Jul 26;30(5):511-26.

Verkhratsky A, Butt A. Neuroglia: function and pathology. Elsevier; 2023 May 12.

Ghadiri F, Sahraian MA, Baghbanian SM, Ashtari F, Razazian N, Majdinasab N, Poursadeghfard M, Hatamian H, Harirchian MH, Beladimoghadam N, Azimi A. Prescription trends of disease-modifying treatments for multiple sclerosis in Iran over the past 30 years. Multiple sclerosis and related disorders. 2022 May 1;61:103777.

Yan P, Deng Y, Su X, Kong H, Zhang Y, Li W, Kong E. The molecular pathology of neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. InReceptor Tyrosine Kinases in Neurodegenerative and Psychiatric Disorders 2023 Jan 1 (pp. 3-43). Academic Press.

University of California, San Francisco MS‐EPIC Team:, Cree BA, Gourraud PA, Oksenberg JR, Bevan C, Crabtree‐Hartman E, Gelfand JM, Goodin DS, Graves J, Green AJ, Mowry E. Long‐term evolution of multiple sclerosis disability in the treatment era. Annals of neurology. 2016 Oct;80(4):499-510.

Arnold TC, Baldassano SN, Litt B, Stein JM. Simulated diagnostic performance of low-field MRI: Harnessing open-access datasets to evaluate novel devices. Magnetic resonance imaging. 2022 Apr 1;87:67-76.

Larsen JL, Schäfer J, Nielsen HH, Rasmussen PV. Qualitative factors shaping MS patients’ experiences of infusible disease-modifying drugs: a critical incident technique analysis. BMJ open. 2020 Aug 1;10(8):e037701.

Olsson T, Barcellos LF, Alfredsson L. Interactions between genetic, lifestyle and environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2017 Jan;13(1):25-36.

Simpson S, Wang W, Otahal P, Blizzard L, van der Mei IA, Taylor BV. Latitude continues to be significantly associated with the prevalence of multiple sclerosis: an updated meta-analysis. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 2019 Nov 1;90(11):1193-200.

Vasanthaprasad V, Khurana V, Vadapalle S, Palace J, Adlard N. Systematic literature review and meta-analysis of the prevalence of secondary progressive multiple sclerosis in the USA, Europe, Canada, Australia, and Brazil. BMC neurology. 2022 Dec;22(1):1-20.

Hwang S, Garcia-Dominguez MA, Fitzgerald KC, Saylor DR. Association of multiple sclerosis prevalence with sociodemographic, health systems, and lifestyle factors on a National and Regional Level. Neurology. 2022 Oct 18;99(16):e1813-23.

Tarlinton RE, Khaibullin T, Granatov E, Martynova E, Rizvanov A, Khaiboullina S. The interaction between viral and environmental risk factors in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. International journal of molecular sciences. 2019 Jan 14;20(2):303.

Fricska-Nagy Z. New data in the epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in Hungary (Doctoral dissertation, University of Szeged).

Fymat AL. Multiple sclerosis: I. Symptomatology and etiology. Neurology and Psychology Research J. 2023 May 20;4(1):1-46.

Pierrot-Deseilligny C, Souberbielle JC. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis: An update. Multiple sclerosis and related disorders. 2017 May 1;14:35-45.

Ghareghani M, Zibara K, Rivest S. Melatonin and vitamin D, two sides of the same coin, better to land on its edge to improve multiple sclerosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2023 Apr 4;120(14):e2219334120.

Canto E, Oksenberg JR. Multiple sclerosis genetics. Multiple Sclerosis Journal. 2018 Jan;24(1):75-9.

Bove R, Chua AS, Xia Z, Chibnik L, De Jager PL, Chitnis T. Complex relation of HLA-DRB1* 1501, age at menarche, and age at multiple sclerosis onset. Neurology Genetics. 2016 Aug 1;2(4).

Mescheriakova JY, van Nierop GP, van der Eijk AA, Kreft KL, Hintzen RQ. EBNA-1 titer gradient in families with multiple sclerosis indicates a genetic contribution. Neurology-Neuroimmunology Neuroinflammation. 2020 Nov 5;7(6).

Agostini S, Mancuso R, Guerini FR, D’Alfonso S, Agliardi C, Hernis A, Zanzottera M, Barizzone N, Leone MA, Caputo D, Rovaris M. HLA alleles modulate EBV viral load in multiple sclerosis. Journal of translational medicine. 2018 Dec;16:1-9.

Bjornevik K, Münz C, Cohen JI, Ascherio A. Epstein–Barr virus as a leading cause of multiple sclerosis: mechanisms and implications. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2023 Mar;19(3):160-71.

Soldan SS, Lieberman PM. Epstein–Barr virus and multiple sclerosis. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2023 Jan;21(1):51-64.

Riccio P, Rossano R. Diet, gut microbiota, and vitamins D+ A in multiple sclerosis. Neurotherapeutics. 2018 Jan;15(1):75-91.

Sanchez JM, DePaula-Silva AB, Libbey JE, Fujinami RS. Role of diet in regulating the gut microbiota and multiple sclerosis. Clinical Immunology. 2022 Feb 1;235:108379.

Dobson R, Jitlal M, Marshall CR, Noyce AJ, Robson J, Cuzick J, Giovannoni G. Ethnic and socioeconomic associations with multiple sclerosis risk. Annals of neurology. 2020 Apr;87(4):599-608.

Pugliatti M, Ferri C. Migration—a route to multiple sclerosis risk globalization?. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2020 Feb;16(2):67-8.

Gilli F, DiSano KD, Pachner AR. SeXX matters in multiple sclerosis. Frontiers in neurology. 2020 Jul 3;11:616.

Bove R, McHenry A, Hellwig K, Houtchens M, Razaz N, Smyth P, Tremlett H, Sadovnick AD, Rintell D. Multiple sclerosis in men: management considerations. Journal of neurology. 2016 Jul;263(7):1263-73.

Talebi M, Sadigh-Eteghad S, Sahraian MA, Fahidi A. Age and sex adjusted prevalence and annual incidence of multiple sclerosis in East-Azerbaijan, Iran. Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders. 2021 May 1;50:102839.

Shen D, Liu K, Wang H, Wang H. Autophagy modulation in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Clinical and Experimental Immunology. 2022 Aug 1;209(2):140-50.

Cavallo S. Immune-mediated genesis of multiple sclerosis. Journal of Translational Autoimmunity. 2020 Jan 1;3:100039.

Paroni M, Maltese V, De Simone M, Ranzani V, Larghi P, Fenoglio C, Pietroboni AM, Milena A, Crosti MC, Maglie S, Moro M. Recognition of viral and self-antigens by TH1 and TH1/TH17 central memory cells in patients with multiple sclerosis reveals distinct roles in immune surveillance and relapses. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. 2017 Sep 1;140(3):797-808.

Moser T, Akgün K, Proschmann U, Sellner J, Ziemssen T. The role of TH17 cells in multiple sclerosis: Therapeutic implications. Autoimmunity reviews. 2020 Oct 1;19(10):102647.

Arneth BM. Impact of B cells to the pathophysiology of multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 2019 Dec;16:1-9.

Van Langelaar J, Rijvers L, Smolders J, Van Luijn MM. B and T cells driving multiple sclerosis: identity, mechanisms and potential triggers. Frontiers in immunology. 2020 May 8;11:760.

Eva L, Pleș H, Covache-Busuioc RA, Glavan LA, Bratu BG, Bordeianu A, Dumitrascu DI, Corlatescu AD, Ciurea AV. A Comprehensive Review on Neuroimmunology: Insights from Multiple Sclerosis to Future Therapeutic Developments. Biomedicines. 2023 Sep 8;11(9):2489.

Sharif Y, Jumah F, Coplan L, Krosser A, Sharif K, Tubbs RS. Blood brain barrier: A review of its anatomy and physiology in health and disease. Clinical Anatomy. 2018 Sep;31(6):812-23.

Christogianni A, Bibb R, Davis SL, Jay O, Barnett M, Evangelou N, Filingeri D. Temperature sensitivity in multiple sclerosis: an overview of its impact on sensory and cognitive symptoms. Temperature. 2018 Jul 3;5(3):208-23.

Hunter SF. Overview and diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Am J Manag Care. 2016 Jun 1;22(6 Suppl):s141-50.

Tahernia H, Esnaasharieh F, Amani H, Milanifard M, Mirakhori F. Diagnosis and Treatment of MS in Patients Suffering from Various Degrees of the Disease with a Clinical Approach: The Orginal Article. Journal of Pharmaceutical Negative Results. 2022 Oct 3:1908-21.

Janalipour K. Multiple sclerosis symptoms. InNeurological Disorders and Imaging Physics, Volume 2: Engineering and clinical perspectives of multiple sclerosis 2019 Nov 1 (pp. 5-1). Bristol, UK: IOP Publishing.

Tollár J, Nagy F, Tóth BE, Török K, Szita K, Csutorás B, Moizs M, Hortobágyi T. Exercise effects on multiple sclerosis quality of life and clinical-motor symptoms. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2020 May 1;52(5):1007-14.

Berkovich R. Treatment of acute relapses in multiple sclerosis. Translational Neuroimmunology in Multiple Sclerosis. 2016 Jan 1:307-26.

Costello F. Vision disturbances in multiple sclerosis. InSeminars in neurology 2016 Apr (Vol. 36, No. 02, pp. 185-195). Thieme Medical Publishers.

Serra A, Chisari CG, Matta M. Eye movement abnormalities in multiple sclerosis: pathogenesis, modeling, and treatment. Frontiers in neurology. 2018 Feb 5;9:31.

Malivoire BL, Hare CJ, Hart TL. Psychological symptoms and perceived cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis: The role of rumination. Rehabilitation psychology. 2018 May;63(2):286.

Nazari N, Sadeghi M, Ghadampour E, Mirzaeefar D. Transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders in people with multiple sclerosis: randomized controlled trial. BMC psychology. 2020 Dec;8(1):1-1.

Silveira C, Guedes R, Maia D, Curral R, Coelho R. Neuropsychiatric symptoms of multiple sclerosis: state of the art. Psychiatry investigation. 2019 Dec;16(12):877.

Gullo HL, Fleming J, Bennett S, Shum DH. Cognitive and physical fatigue are associated with distinct problems in daily functioning, role fulfilment, and quality of life in multiple sclerosis. Multiple sclerosis and related disorders. 2019 Jun 1;31:118-23.

Backus D. Increasing physical activity and participation in people with multiple sclerosis: a review. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 2016 Sep 1;97(9):S210-7.

Noffs G, Perera T, Kolbe SC, Shanahan CJ, Boonstra FM, Evans A, Butzkueven H, van der Walt A, Vogel AP. What speech can tell us: A systematic review of dysarthria characteristics in Multiple Sclerosis. Autoimmunity reviews. 2018 Dec 1;17(12):1202-9.

Plotas P, Nanousi V, Kantanis A, Tsiamaki E, Papadopoulos A, Tsapara A, Glyka A, Mani E, Roumelioti F, Strataki G, Fragkou G. Speech deficits in multiple sclerosis: a narrative review of the existing literature. European Journal of Medical Research. 2023 Jul 24;28(1):252.

Printza A, Triaridis S, Kalaitzi M, Nikolaidis I, Bakirtzis C, Constantinidis J, Grigoriadis N. Dysphagia prevalence, attitudes, and related quality of life in patients with multiple sclerosis. Dysphagia. 2020 Aug;35:677-84.

Planche V, Gibelin M, Cregut D, Pereira B, Clavelou P. Cognitive impairment in a population‐based study of patients with multiple sclerosis: differences between late relapsing− remitting, secondary progressive and primary progressive multiple sclerosis. European journal of neurology. 2016 Feb;23(2):282-9.

Klineova S, Lublin FD. Clinical course of multiple sclerosis. Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in medicine. 2018 Sep 1;8(9):a028928.

Zeydan B, Kantarci OH. Progressive forms of multiple sclerosis: distinct entity or age-dependent phenomena. Neurologic Clinics. 2018 Feb 1;36(1):163-71.

Lizarraga AA, Sheremata WA. Multiple Sclerosis: Clinical Features, Immunopathogenesis, and Treatment. Inflammatory Disorders of the Nervous System: Pathogenesis, Immunology, and Clinical Management. 2017:25-75.

Repovic P. Management of multiple sclerosis relapses. CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology. 2019 Jun 1;25(3):655-69.

Rzepiński Ł, Zawadka-Kunikowska M, Maciejek Z, Newton JL, Zalewski P. Early clinical features, time to secondary progression, and disability milestones in polish multiple sclerosis patients. Medicina. 2019 May 31;55(6):232.

Cree BA, Arnold DL, Chataway J, Chitnis T, Fox RJ, Ramajo AP, Murphy N, Lassmann H. Secondary progressive multiple sclerosis: new insights. Neurology. 2021 Aug 24;97(8):378-88.

Doshi AH. Understanding cognitive dysfunction in secondary progressive multiple sclerosis using functional and structural MRI (Doctoral dissertation, UCL (University College London)).

Abramovich I. Pharmacological management of progressive multiple sclerosis (Doctoral dissertation, University of Zagreb. School of Medicine).

Macaron G, Hughes SE. FAST FACTS.

Hughes SE, Macaron G. Fast Facts: Multiple Sclerosis: A new era of disease modification and treatment. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers; 2021 May 5.

Guo LY, Lozinski B, Yong VW. Exercise in multiple sclerosis and its models: Focus on the central nervous system outcomes. Journal of neuroscience research. 2020 Mar;98(3):509-23.

Holloman JP, Axtell RC, Monson NL, Wu GF. The role of B cells in primary progressive multiple sclerosis. Frontiers in Neurology. 2021 Jun 7;12:680581.

Vollmer TL, Nair KV, Williams IM, Alvarez E. Multiple sclerosis phenotypes as a continuum: the role of neurologic reserve. Neurology: Clinical Practice. 2021 Aug 1;11(4):342-51.

Niiranen M, Koikkalainen J, Lötjönen J, Selander T, Cajanus A, Hartikainen P, Simula S, Vanninen R, Remes AM. Grey matter atrophy in patients with benign multiple sclerosis. Brain and behavior. 2022 Jul;12(7):e2679.

Mathey G, Pisché G, Soudant M, Pittion-Vouyovitch S, Guillemin F, Debouverie M, Epstein J. Long-term analysis of patients with benign multiple sclerosis: new insights about the disability course. Journal of Neurology. 2021 Oct 1:1-9.

Kantarci OH. Phases and phenotypes of multiple sclerosis. CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology. 2019 Jun 1;25(3):636-54.

Al-Namaeh M. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the development of multiple sclerosis in clinically isolated syndrome. European Journal of Ophthalmology. 2021 Jul;31(4):1643-55.

Marchesi O, Vizzino C, Filippi M, Rocca MA. Current perspectives on the diagnosis and management of fatigue in multiple sclerosis. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2022 Aug 3;22(8):681-93.

Barbour C, Kosa P, Komori M, Tanigawa M, Masvekar R, Wu T, Johnson K, Douvaras P, Fossati V, Herbst R, Wang Y. Molecular‐based diagnosis of multiple sclerosis and its progressive stage. Annals of neurology. 2017 Nov;82(5):795-812.

Solomon AJ, Weinshenker BG. Misdiagnosis of multiple sclerosis: frequency, causes, effects, and prevention. Current neurology and neuroscience reports. 2013 Dec;13:1-7.

Arrambide G, Tintore M. Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: what is changing?. Expert review of neurotherapeutics. 2020 Aug 2;20(8):743-6.

Ma Y, Zhang C, Cabezas M, Song Y, Tang Z, Liu D, Cai W, Barnett M, Wang C. Multiple sclerosis lesion analysis in brain magnetic resonance images: techniques and clinical applications. IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics. 2022 Feb 16;26(6):2680-92.

Rovira À, Auger C. Beyond McDonald: updated perspectives on MRI diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2021 Aug 3;21(8):895-911.

Selmaj KW, Mycko MP, Furlan R, Rejdak K. Fluid phase biomarkers in multiple sclerosis. Current Opinion in Neurology. 2022 Jun 1;35(3):286-92.

Markand ON, Markand ON. Visual evoked potentials. Clinical Evoked Potentials: An Illustrated Manual. 2020:83-137.

Wuschek A, Bussas M, El Husseini M, Harabacz L, Pineker V, Pongratz V, Berthele A, Riederer I, Zimmer C, Hemmer B, Kirschke JS. Somatosensory evoked potentials and magnetic resonance imaging of the central nervous system in early multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neurology. 2023 Feb;270(2):824-30.

Ehteshamfar SM, Akhbari M, Afshari JT, Seyedi M, Nikfar B, Shapouri‐Moghaddam A, Ghanbarzadeh E, Momtazi‐Borojeni AA. Anti‐inflammatory and immune‐modulatory impacts of berberine on activation of autoreactive T cells in autoimmune inflammation. Journal of cellular and molecular medicine. 2020 Dec;24(23):13573-88.

Arneth B. Contributions of T cells in multiple sclerosis: what do we currently know?. Journal of neurology. 2021 Dec 1:1-7.

Comi G, Bar‐Or A, Lassmann H, Uccelli A, Hartung HP, Montalban X, Sørensen PS, Hohlfeld R, Hauser SL, Expert Panel of the 27th Annual Meeting of the European Charcot Foundation. Role of B cells in multiple sclerosis and related disorders. Annals of neurology. 2021 Jan;89(1):13-23.

Gharibi T, Babaloo Z, Hosseini A, Marofi F, Ebrahimi‐kalan A, Jahandideh S, Baradaran B. The role of B cells in the immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis. Immunology. 2020 Aug;160(4):325-35.

Cencioni MT, Mattoscio M, Magliozzi R, Bar-Or A, Muraro PA. B cells in multiple sclerosis—from targeted depletion to immune reconstitution therapies. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2021 Jul;17(7):399-414.

Goodin DS, Khankhanian P, Gourraud PA, Vince N. The nature of genetic and environmental susceptibility to multiple sclerosis. PLoS One. 2021 Mar 22;16(3):e0246157.

Sidoryk-Węgrzynowicz M, Strużyńska L. Astroglial and microglial purinergic P2X7 receptor as a major contributor to neuroinflammation during the course of multiple sclerosis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021 Aug 5;22(16):8404.

Younger DS. Multiple sclerosis: Motor dysfunction. InHandbook of Clinical Neurology 2023 Jan 1 (Vol. 196, pp. 119-147). Elsevier.

Heng AH, Han CW, Abbott C, McColl SR, Comerford I. Chemokine-Driven Migration of Pro-Inflammatory CD4+ T Cells in CNS Autoimmune Disease. Frontiers in Immunology. 2022 Feb 16;13:817473.

Spaas J, Van Veggel L, Schepers M, Tiane A, Van Horssen J, Wilson III DM, Moya PR, Piccart E, Hellings N, Eijnde BO, Derave W. Oxidative stress and impaired oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation in neurological disorders. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 2021 May;78(10):4615-37.

Farshbafnadi M, Agah E, Rezaei N. The second brain: The connection between gut microbiota composition and multiple sclerosis. Journal of Neuroimmunology. 2021 Nov 15;360:577700.

Amini ME, Shomali N, Bakhshi A, Rezaei S, Hemmatzadeh M, Hosseinzadeh R, Eslami S, Babaie F, Aslani S, Torkamandi S, Mohammadi H. Gut microbiome and multiple sclerosis: New insights and perspective. International immunopharmacology. 2020 Nov 1;88:107024.

Corboy JR, Gross RH. Use of Disease-Modifying Therapies in Multiple Sclerosis. Neuroimmunology: Multiple Sclerosis, Autoimmune Neurology and Related Diseases. 2021:493-506.

Raza M. Disease Modifying Therapies in Multiple Sclerosis: A Review. Nepal Journal of Neuroscience. 2023 Apr 1;20(2).

Goldschmidt CH, Hua LH. Re-evaluating the use of IFN-β and relapsing multiple sclerosis: safety, efficacy and place in therapy. Degenerative Neurological and Neuromuscular Disease. 2020 Jun 26:29-38.

Regner-Nelke L, Pawlitzki M, Willison A, Rolfes L, Oezalp SH, Nelke C, Kölsche T, Korsen M, Grothe M, Groppa S, Luessi F. Real-world evidence on siponimod treatment in patients with secondary progressive multiple sclerosis. Neurological Research and Practice. 2022 Dec;4(1):1-1.

Hollen CW, Soldán MM, Rinker JR, Spain RI. The future of progressive multiple sclerosis therapies. Federal Practitioner. 2020 Apr;37(Suppl 1):S43.

Berkovich RR. Acute multiple sclerosis relapse. CONTINUUM: Lifelong Learning in Neurology. 2016 Jun 1;22(3):799-814.

Iodice R, Aceto G, Ruggiero L, Cassano E, Manganelli F, Dubbioso R. A review of current rehabilitation practices and their benefits in patients with multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders. 2022.

Downloads

Published

2024-03-07

How to Cite

Al-ma'mouri, M. Y. A.- ma'mouri. (2024). Article Review: Multiple Sclerosis. Journal for Research in Applied Sciences and Biotechnology, 3(1), 177–186. https://doi.org/10.55544/jrasb.3.1.29